1.0 INTRODUCTION
2.0 Effective Conflict Management
3.0 Conflict Management in Schools – An Account of Ongoing Programs
4.0 Conclusion
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The management of a school, an educational institution aimed at educating individuals is inevitably faced with many challenges. Teachers, in the current learner-centered trend, are viewed as facilitator, guide, and coordinators. The classroom is part of the broader context of school culture, hence, teachers are responsible for the outcome of classroom management. Teacher must not abdicate responsibility for what happens in the classroom. As such, classrooms have to be managed effectively to provide a conducive learning environment for students. Students are being encouraged to claim ownership for their classroom environment and to take part in planning and evaluating their own learning. This paradigm shift of the traditional teacher-centered to learner centered classroom has posed challenges for teachers. Many educators search for creative ways “ to enhance constructive interpersonal skills” Pendharkar (1995) that are crucial for developing responsible adults who can cooperate and work constructively with other members of society.
The challenges involved in classroom management are manifold due to the crowded, complex and potentially chaotic classroom. Some features of typical classroom may lead to conflicts or disputes. A cross-section of most classrooms reveal the following similarities:
1. Classrooms are multidimensional. They are the settings for many activities, ranging from academia to social. Teachers keep records and have to ensure students are on schedule as well as work needs to be assigned, tutored, collected and evaluated. Hence, students’ individual needs have to be taken into account.
2. Classroom is a stage for simultaneous activities, all of which has to be kept in check considering the large enrolment of students.
3. Events can happen quickly and slowly, as planned or impromptu. Teacher response will have to be varied, immediate or delayed.
4. Classrooms are multiracial. The population make-up of students consists of several ethnic groups, as in the case of Malaysian schools.
Such features of the classroom can result in conflicts. Recent media reports reveal rising incidences and severity of school violence, for example student fights and beatings that have resulted in deaths. Consequently, if conflicts are not managed or left unresolved, it may escalate and consequently interfere with the learning process as suggested by Deutsch in Longaretti & Wilson (2000).
The importance of Conflict management can no longer be denied or delayed in its implementation in schools. If conflicts and disputes are left unresolved or unaddressed, the institution of education is in jeopardy, hence, contributing to escalating physical and emotional violence.
Conflicts can arise at varying levels in a school. Administrators, teachers and students must be taught how to resolve conflict amenably so as to foster a conducive environment in which teaching and learning can be achieved. John Dewey in Guiding Quotes (2004) postulates that,
“The child is an organic whole, intellectually, socially, and morally as well as physically. We must take the child as a member of society in the broadest sense, and demand for and from the schools whatever necessary to enable the child intelligently to recognize all his social relations and take part in sustaining them.”
Clearly, the school is a microcosm of society. Education in itself is a social, political and cultural agenda. Girard (1995) suggests that when the values and skills of cooperation, communication, tolerance, positive emotion expression and conflict resolution are taught and supported throughout the culture of the school, then a peaceable classroom or school can be established. She furthers adds that societal values of democracy and citizenship, developing a peaceful world, cooperative learning, multicultural education, prejudice reduction, social justice, violence prevention and intervention, critical thinking an problem-solving, and site-based management can be inculcated through conflict management in education. Conflict management can help to resolve existing and potential conflicts in the classroom and the school as a whole, thus fulfilling its agendas of nurturing individuals who will fit into society and fulfill the societal stakeholders’ purpose of educational investment.
1.1 Definition of CONFLICT
What is “CONFLICT” and what constitutes conflict? Conflict is a natural phenomenon. To differing degrees, it occurs daily in everyone’s life. Holmes (2001) defines conflict as a situation existing between two or more individual or parties in which one party assumes that the other has negative effect or, is about to negatively affect an agenda that the former cares about. There are three elements that will justify the existence of conflict.
Firstly, there is a specific perception on the part of one or more parties involved in the conflict. The perception may be accurate or it may not be so. However, the perception is maintained by the conflicting parties. Secondly, the perception is generally, most often negative in nature. One party believes that the other may do something that would result in a negative impact in some direct or indirect way. Finally, the issue revolving around the conflict must be based on the same agenda that is of interest to both conflicting parties. Only when these three elements are present, then a conflict will arise.
Based on this definition, not all disagreements are conflicts. A dispute between two individuals or parties on an action or measure to be taken does not constitute a conflict unless both parties are significantly concerned about the issue at hand. Both believe that the other may act in a manner detrimental to their interests. And if any one party decides to concede, then the dispute is not a conflict. Likewise, both parties may disagree on the relevant issue and both believe that neither would have a detrimental effect on their goals or interest, then the dispute is not a conflict.
1.2 What is CONFLICT MANAGEMENT?
Conflict Management is “a systematic process geared toward finding
mutually satisfying outcomes for two or more conflicted parties.” (Holmes, 2001). He further elaborates that these outcomes help a team, group, organization or community, in short the stakeholders concerned, to function more effectively and achieve desired or stated goals.
Holmes (2001) further classifies two types of conflict; functional and dysfunctional. Functional conflict is when the conflict is related to the goals of the organization. The impact is positive as all parties are genuinely interested to improve quality, productivity and overall group performance. Dysfunctional conflict encompasses disputes, disagreements that results in the case of a school environment, students, unwilling to work together towards mutually advantageous solutions. If dysfunctional conflict escalates, it can bring about discontentment, damaged relationships, decreased communication and productivity, reduced group unity and performance and inability to achieve goals. Dysfunctional conflict hinders group performance in its ability to achieve goals. Therefore, the eventual purpose of conflict management is to efficiently and effectively resolve or reduce dysfunctional conflict that hinders group performance.
2.0 EFFECTIVE CONFLICT MANAGEMENT
The process of conflict management hinges on the proactive nature as an ongoing process whereby effective teachers constantly strive to create conditions that facilitate conflict resolution processes of “win-win” outcomes. This can be done by creating effective communication channels within the organization consisting of the following:
• developing an atmosphere that encourages participation
• helping individuals develop productive work relationships
• constantly improving organizational processes and procedures
resolution skills
• helping individuals develop effective communication and conflict
• instituting grievance and mediation processes for employees
(Holmes, 2001)
In the case of a school community, effective communication channel would have to be established between teachers and administrative staff, students and teachers and students to students. Conflict can never be completely eliminated as is inevitable and has to be viewed positively as a natural and fundamental part of everyday life (Longaretti & Wilson, 2000). Constructive management of conflict will, in turn, stimulate development, adaptation and change.
2.1 The Process of Conflict Management through Conflict Resolution skills
Conflict Management in schools adopt the approach of teaching teachers, students and
parents conflict resolution skills. Conflict resolution skills are inculcated in schools
through conflict resolution programs or that they are embedded in the subjects taught
with the hopes of making students aware that there is a peaceable solution to disputes
and conflicts. The main intent of conflict resolution programs is to teach all students,
if not more, to employ conflict resolution skills that will help eliminate or reduce
emotional and physical friction thus ensuring a conducive in a learning environment.
Girard and Kock in Longaretti & Wilson (2000) postulate the “idea that students can participate in and resolve their own conflicts and assume at least partial responsibility for their school’s climate”. The implication is that students can be made responsible to resolve conflicts as an effective learning environment greatly depends on them, hence, the ownership of a conducive learning institution. A quote taken from the Ohio Commission and Dispute Resolution and Conflict Management (2004) also supports the fact that if students are able to communicate through conflict resolution skills, there is less rebellion on the part of the students and teachers would be able to manage their classroom better,
“Anything you can do to increase communication in your class will reduce your need to impose order by authority and reduce the students’ need to rebel against that authority.”
Clearly, conflict management programs hinge on the proactive nature of initiating conflict resolution skills. Basically, Holmes (2001) suggests that leaders of conflict resolution programs should employ the process of understanding the cause and intensity of the conflict. Then select a strategy for resolving the conflict.
2.1.1 Understand the CAUSE of the conflict
In classroom management, teachers should strive to establish a close rapport with the students, which includes knowing each and every student’s family background, style of learning, likes and interests. Although this is time consuming but the importance is significant to warrant reason as it enables the teacher to determine cause(s) of conflict. Holmes (2001) outlines that conflicts often fall under one or more categories of misinterpretation or differing views of information, disagreement on the process of completing a task, differing goals, agendas, basic beliefs or values and finally varying personality, communication or work styles.
2.1.2 Understand the INTENSITY of the conflict
Once the cause is established, determine the intensity of conflict. Intensity refers to how interested is each student or party in resolving a conflict. Teachers have to mediate with the conflicting students to determine their flexibility of resolving conflict amicably. Holmes (2001) postulates that the higher the flexibility, the likelihood it is of achieving a “win-win” outcome of a mutually satisfying resolution.
2.1.3 Select a STRATEGY for resolving the conflict
In order to mediate conflict resolutions, Holmes (2001) suggests 4
“Factors which influence the development of a child’s perception and the style of managing conflict include past experience, socialization and the exposure to and modeling of different conflict styles. A child’s conflict style may be influenced by how he or she sees disputes being handled around him or her, thus the importance of teachers as role models.”
Conflict Resolution strategies. They are Collaboration, Domination, Accommodation and Avoidance. A teacher’s choice of strategy can lead to specific outcome in the classroom. The teacher’s perception of conflict and students in conflict, influence the effectiveness of conflict management (Shantz and Hobart
2.2 Strategies for Conflict Resolution
Just as conflict differs in its nature, cause and intensity, the strategies used to resolve conflicts will have to suit the circumstances at hand. It would be unrealistic to apply a win-win solution for every single conflict. There are four alternating strategies that can be applied.
2.2.1 Collaboration (WIN – WIN)
Collaboration results with the outcome that is advantageous for all
parties. The following circumstances allow for collaboration:
• when there is a need to gain the commitment and cooperation of all
involved
• when both viewpoints are equally important
• when the goal is to assess one’s own viewpoint and better understand
the ideas of others too
• when the merging of different perspectives is advantageous to
resolution
2.2.2 Domination (WIN – LOSE)
Domination results in the need for swift action, therefore one party
wins by forcing their decision upon the losing party. The following circumstances allow for domination:
• when one’ s viewpoint is deemed more important than the other
• when the relationship is not of particular importance
• when there is little need for commitment and cooperation of others
2.2.3 Accommodation (LOSE – WIN)
Accommodation also results in the need for swift action, therefore
one party concedes. The following circumstances allow for accommodation:
• when the other party’s viewpoint is more important than one’s own
• when the relationship is more important than the issue of conflict
2.2.4 Avoidance (LOSE – LOSE)
Avoidance results if there is no immediate need for a solution. The
following circumstances call for avoidance:
• when the conflict is insignificant
• when the relevant parties agree that there is a need to include a
mediating party
• when the resolution may prove to be more damaging than beneficial to a relationship
• when the cause of conflict is personality clashes and not content focused
• when there is no chance of obtaining an advantageous outcome
3.0 Conflict Management in Schools – An Account of Ongoing Programs
Conflict management practices have been developed ranging from business, government, schools and training. In recent years, a significant change in educational trends has sparked off a new form of classroom management and pedagogy. Perspectives have evolved to recognize conflicts as being able to contribute positively to interpersonal relationships and personal development, hence it is has led to the development of educational conflict resolution programs (Johnson and Johnson, 2000). One such establishment is The Cooperative Learning Centre, formed by Johnson, D. W and Johnson, T. J. at the University of Minnesota
Conflict Management in schools can be introduced through Conflict Resolution programs. It can be taught alongside daily school routine. Classroom management, classroom curriculum, school based programs are main entry points for Conflict Resolution skills in schools. Information and skills can be taught subtle through subjects like Social Studies, English Literature, Science and even Mathematics. Likewise, it can also be incidentally taught through direct instruction in communication and cooperative problem-solving learning. There are various ways in which teachers can find innovative ways to incorporate conflict resolution skills in the Teaching and Learning process.
Conflict Resolution programs in schools aim to teach students an alternative way to fighting, listening to others’ viewpoints, discuss differences until a satisfactory compromise can be achieved. The major themes of these programs are active listening (Inger, 1991),
“…participants summarize what each said to ensure accurate
comprehension, cooperation between disputants, acceptance of each others’ differences and creative problem-solving which takes into account each disputant’s position.”
Clearly, the programs emphasis is experiential learning among students and the teacher’s role is that of a facilitator or coach. Students are encouraged to participate in team projects, role play through which they learn to manage and resolve conflict peacefully, hands-on. The following are several ways the skills of Conflict Resolution are initiated in schools.
3.1 Curriculum-based Program
The Resolving Conflict Creatively (RCCP) is New York New York City
3.2 Link to Academics
Conflict Resolution skills can be successfully infused into subjects being taught at schools. According to the Ohio Commission on Dispute Resolution and Conflict Management (2004), teachers who included conflict resolution principles in classrooms reported that students are able to better understand the relationship between academic and the real world. Several subjects that can incorporate conflict resolution skills are Reading
In Reading
In Science, the symbiotic relationship of plants and animal life or the balance of coexisting ecological systems can be used to illustrate the “win-win” resolutions in real life existence. A study of Earth’s existence also reveals the many conflicts that have resulted in evolution.
Similarly, in Social Studies, students can be encouraged to analyze potential conflicts that arise from policies implemented locally, across the state, national and international levels. The conflict can be that of a current war or that of historical events, for example the Resident System in Malaya , during the British occupation.
These are some of the creative ways in which conflict resolution skills can be introduced or infused into academic subjects in schools.
3.3 Peer Mediation Program
Peer Mediation is one of the most common conflict resolution systems (Opotow and Deustch in Longaretti, 2000). Conflict Resolution programs also employ the help of student peer mediators (Ohio Commission, 2004). Students are trained to guide their peers or juniors involved in a dispute through mediation processes. In the ‘Teaching Students to be Peacemakers Program’ (Johnson and Johnson, 2000) a 12 year spiral curriculum was conceived in which each year students learn increasingly sophisticated negotiations and mediation procedures. Negotiation procedures and mediation procedures consists of six steps and four steps respectively. Students, who completed the program, were appointed as mediators on voluntary and daily basis. The hands-on experience of mediating is the one that best teaches students how to negotiate and resolve conflicts.
Johnson & Johnson in Cangelosi (1997) also found that “before training, most students had daily conflicts, use destructive strategies that tended to escalate the conflict, referred the conflict to their teacher, and did not know how to negotiate. On the other hand, the result of a study of students in 1st to 9th grades who were involved in the peer mediation curricula,
“were able to apply negotiations and mediation procedures to actual conflict situations, as well as transfer them to non classroom and non school settings, such as the playground, the lunchroom, and at home. Further, they maintained their skills throughout the year.”
Johnson and Johnson (2000) also observed that students tend to learn the problem-solving negotiation and peer mediation procedures, apply them in actual conflict situations and transfer their use to non-classroom and non-school situations.
Other programs like Peer Support and Buddies also use peer mediation procedures. They are derived from the value of peer teaching and cross age tutoring. These programs also encourage cooperation and foster positive social interaction between students.
3.4 Adult Mediation Program
Conflict Resolution in schools have grown rapidly in line with growing concern that conflict resolution skills can be modeled by teachers to students. Students, if provided with an exemplary model, would be able to emulate conflict resolution skills. Girard (1995) mentioned that most educators learn conflict resolution skills through daily classroom survival or are exposed to them through staff development. The issue at hand is the extent of which teachers practice exemplary skills that can be modeled by students since modeling is essential. Therefore, training teachers to conduct peer mediation programs or use conflict resolutions skills is crucial. Girard (1995) further surmises that “without sufficient training to address teacher’s own behavior, there is a danger that adults’ words will not match their actions.” However, it was noted that the inclusion of conflict resolution training within pre service and graduate education programs are slower than the curricula that has been introduced in schools.
4.0 Conclusion
Conflict Resolution is part of classroom management. Students who are able to resolve their conflicts with constructive resolution skills will ensure and be responsible for a peaceable and conducive classroom environment. If students experience a non-threatening classroom environment where cooperation is encouraged, trust is promoted and group interaction is frequent, they will have ample opportunities to practice and reasons to choose nonviolent conflict resolution strategies over aggression and violence.
The classroom becomes a safe, caring and conducive place for all students. The collaboration to maintain the unity and harmony of the classroom environment becomes a shared effort as students become aware of the fact that the classroom is how they make it or want it, that they have a stake in maintaining the well being of the class. The value of ‘ownership’ is instilled during the process of building the sense of community in the classroom where each person becomes concerned about all members of the class and where everyone works together for their mutual benefit.
Conflict resolution is one way to establish genuine concern for students, provide them support, take them seriously, make them feel safe, and bring them into genuine partnerships with the school community as a whole. As part of this process, students are given the opportunity to express their opinions, make judgments, assume responsibility, and work closely to resolve conflicts in the classroom and school. The school as an educational institution is then able to typify and meet the needs of society, which is to educate and nurture students who will be able to accept and practice constructive conflict resolution skills and fit into any strata of society.
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7 May 2004
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